PUNCTUATION გამოვტოვე

Pre-determiners : such, what, rather, quite

Pre-determiners are normally placed before an indefinite article + adjective + noun to express an opinion about the noun they modify. Such andwhat are used to express surprise or other emotions.

EXAMPLES

• What a lovely day!
• She's such a beautiful woman.
• You can't imagine what an incredible meal I just ate.
• I've had such a good time today!

Rather and quite are commenting words, referring to the degree of a particular quality as expressed by the adjective that modifies the noun. They can express disappointment, pleasure, or other emotions depending on the adjective in question. In British English, rather is used as a pre-determiner. In American English it is only used as an adverb. The examples given below are British English.

EXAMPLES

• It was quite a nice day.
• He's had quite a bad accident.
• It's rather a small car.
• I've just met rather a nice man.

other another & the other

The determiners other and another refer to something different, remaining, or additional. They are placed before a noun. The other is treated separately because it's usage is slightly different.

გამსაზღვრე;ებო უკავშრდება რაღაც განსხვავებულს, დარჩენილს, დამატებითს. გამოიყენება არსებითი სახელის წინ.

Other	Plural countable nouns and all uncountable nouns მრავლობითი დათვლადი და დაუთვლელი
Another	Singular countable nouns   მხოლობით დათვლადი
The other	Any noun that can take the definite article "the"  სხვა

USING "OTHER"

Other can come after the determiners some, any, and no.

EXAMPLES

• Do you have other shoes?
• There are other jobs you could try.
• Is there any other bread?
• I have some other sugar we could use.
• We have no other ideas.

If used with a plural countable noun and one of these determiners, the noun may be omitted when it is understood from the context. In that case,other becomes plural. This can also happen with other used by itself, but it is less common.

EXAMPLES

• Do you have any others?
• I know some others who might like to come.
• There are no others in this box.
• I know others like vanilla, but I prefer chocolate.
• She doesn't have to wear that dress. She has others.

USING "ANOTHER"

Another is used with singular countable nouns. For uncountable nouns, another is often used with measure words that are singular.

EXAMPLES

• Have another cookie.
• Would you like another cup of tea?
• He has another brother.
• I don't have another car.
• I'll come by another time.

USING "THE OTHER"

If the other is modifying a plural countable noun, the noun may be omitted when it is understood from the context. In that case, other will become plural.

EXAMPLES

• Where is the other box of cereal?
• I work on the weekend and go to school on the other days of the week.
• May I use the other honey for my recipe?
• I enjoyed the first book but I didn't read the other books in the series.
• Have you seen the others?
• Jim ate two cookies. I ate the others.

........................................

I'll come by another time

EITHER NEITHER both წყვილი

The distributive determiners both, either and neither are concerned with distribution between a pair of objects. Normally, these words cannot be used to refer to a group of three or more individuals. They also cannot be used to refer to a group of indefinite size. These distributives can only refer to countable nouns.

USING "BOTH"

Both refers to the whole pair and is equivalent to "one and the other". Both can be used with plural nouns on its own, or it can be followed by "of", with or without an article. When followed by a plural pronoun, both must be separated from the pronoun by "of". Both cannot be used with singular nouns, because it refers to two things.

EXAMPLES

• Both children were born in Italy.
• Both the children were born in Italy.
• Both of the children were born in Italy.
• Both my parents have fair hair.
• Both of my parents have fair hair.
• Both of us like skiing.
• I told both of them to calm down.

USING "EITHER"

Either is positive and when used alone, refers to one of the two members of the pair. It is equivalent to "one or the other". Because it refers to just one member of a pair, either must be used before a singular noun. It can also be used with a plural noun or pronoun if followed by "of".

EXAMPLES

• I can stay at either hotel.
• Either day is fine for me.
• There are two chairs here. You can take either of them.
• Either of you can come.
• Either of the hotels will be fine.
• I can eat either of the salads.

Either can also be used with or in a construction that talks about each member of the pair in turn. The meaning remains the same, but in this caseeither is not functioning as a distributive. It is functioning as a conjunction.

EXAMPLES

• You can have either ice cream or chocolate cake.
• I will come on either Thursday or Friday.
• You can either come inside or put on your raincoat.

USING "NEITHER"

Neither is negative and when used alone, refers to the whole pair. It is equivalent to "not one or the other". Because it refers to just one member of a pair, neither must be used before a singular noun. It can also be used with a plural noun or pronoun if followed by "of".

EXAMPLES

• Neither chair is any good.
• Neither brother came.
• Which bag do you want? Neither of them.
• Neither of us were on time.
• I think neither of these dresses fits me.
• Neither of the children wanted to go.

Neither can also be used with nor in a construction that talks about each member of the pair in turn. The meaning remains the same, but in this caseneither is not functioning as a distributive. It is functioning as a conjunction.

EXAMPLES

• You can have neither cookies nor candy.
• It is neither raining nor snowing.
• She is neither tall nor short.

half

The distributive determiner half is used to talk about a whole group divided in two. Half can be used as a distributive in several different patterns. Other fractions can be used in the same patterns, although they are less frequent.

Half can be used with measurements preceeded by an indefinite article (a or an). In this usage, it refers to a measurement.

EXAMPLES

• I had half a cup of milk left.
• I bought half a kilo of flour.
• He ran half a mile this morning.
• I will be back in half a minute.

Half can be used with nouns preceeded by the, a, a demonstrative, or a possessive pronoun. In this case, the meaning refers to a concrete, physical divison. The word of can be added just after half with no change in meaning.

EXAMPLES

• Half the people have already left.
• Half of an apple isn't very much lunch.
• Did you use half my sugar?
• I will need half of the flour for my cake.
• I earned half of that money last summer.
• She found half these frogs in the river.
• I spent half that time on my project.
• You can take half of those books back.
• I've invited half my friends to the party.
• I've used up half of our eggs.
• You wasted half your money on that!

Half can be used with plural pronouns preceeded by of.

EXAMPLES

• Half of us are going.
• He scolded half of you but he let the rest off.
• You couldn't find half of them?

ALL

The distributive determiner all is used to talk about a whole group, with a special emphasis on the fact that nothing has been left out. All can be used as a distributive in several different patterns.

All can be used with uncountable nouns and plural countable nouns by itself. In this usage, it refers to the group as a concept rather than as individuals.

შეიძლება გამოვიტენოთ დაუთვლელ არსებითებთან და მრავლობით დათვლადებთან.

EXAMPLES

• All cheese contains protein.
• I like all dogs.
• All children need affection.
• This soap is for all purposes.

All can be used with uncountable nouns and plural countable nouns preceeded by the or a possessive pronoun. In this case, the meaning is shifted towards referring to a concrete, physical group rather than the group as a concept. In these uses, the word of can be added just after all with no change in meaning.

აქ როცა კონკრეტულ ჯგუფზეა ან რამეზე.

EXAMPLES

• All the people in the room were silent.
• All of the birds flew away.
• Have you eaten all the bread?
• I will need all of the sugar.
• I've invited all my friends to the party.
• I've used up all of our eggs.
• You wasted all your time.

All can be used with plural pronouns preceeded by of.

მრავლობით ნაცვალსახელებზე

EXAMPLES

• All of us are going.
• He scolded all of you.
• Did you find all of them?

All can be used in questions and exclamations with uncountable nouns preceeded by this or that. In these uses, the word of can be added just afterall with no change in meaning.

EXAMPLES

• Who has left all this paper on my desk?
• Look at all this snow!
• Why is all of that sugar on the floor?
• Where did all of this confetti come from?

All can be used in questions and exclamations with countable nouns preceeded by these or those. In these uses, the word of can be added just afterall with no change in meaning.

EXAMPLES

• Look at all those balloons!
• Where did all of those books come from?
• Why are all these children crying?

EACH and EVERY

Each is a way of seeing the members of a group as individuals, while every is a way of seeing a group as a series of members. These distributives can only be used in countable nouns. They are normally used with singular nouns, and are placed before the noun. In many cases, they are interchangeable.

იჩ არის გზა დანახვის ჯგუფის წევრებისა როგორც ინდივიდუალების, როცა ევრი არის გზა დანახვის ჯგუფისა როგორც რიგის.  ეს გამანაწილებელნი თვლადი არსებითი სახელებისთვის არის. მხოლობით რიცხვში ძირითადად. და არსებითი სახელის წინ გამოიყენება. მრავალ შემთხვევაში ურთიერთშენაცვლებადია

EXAMPLES

• Each child received a present.
• Every child received a present.
• I gave each plant some water.
• I gave every plant some water.

Each can also be used with plural nouns and pronouns but must be followed by 'of'. Every cannot be used with plural nouns.

იჩ შეიძლება გამოვიყენოთ მრავლობით არსებით სახელებთან და ნაცვალსახელებთან მაგრამ წინ უნდა ოფ.

ევრის გამოყენება მრავლობით არსებითებში არ შეიძლება

EXAMPLES

• Each of the children received a present.
• I gave each of the plants some water.
• He told each of us our jobs.
• I gave each of them a kiss.

Every can express different points in a series, especially with time expressions. Each works in the same way, but is less common.

EXAMPLES

• Every morning John goes jogging.
• This magazine is published every week.
• I have my coffee here every day.
• I go visit my mother each week.
• Each Monday, he buys a kilo of apples.

Enough

Enough can be used as a quantifier when it is placed before any noun, to indicate the quantity required or necessary. It can be used in both affirmative and negative sentences.

EXAMPLES

• There is enough bread for lunch.
• She has enough money.
• There are not enough apples for all of us.
• I don't have enough sugar to make a cake.

The word enough can also be an adverb of degree, in which case it is not placed before a noun.

მრავლობითი დათვლითი Many More Most , Few Fewer Fewest დაუთვლელი much more most, little less least

Graded quantifiers allow us to compare the quantity of one thing with the quantity of another, without specifying an exact quantity for either element. Graded quantifiers preceed nouns. Different quantifiers are needed for countable and uncountable nouns. Sometimes the noun can be omitted when it is understood from the context.

They are distinct from comparatives and superlatives, which compare the degrees of a quality (adjectives) or the degree of the manner something was done (adverbs). Graded quantifiers, like comparatives and superlatives, hold a relative position on a scale of increase or decrease. The superlative grade is always preceeded by the in a sentence.

quantifier	comparative grade	superlative grade
With plural countable nouns
many	more	most
few	fewer	fewest
With uncountable nouns
much	more	most
little	less	least

EXAMPLES

• There are many people in England, more people in India, but the most people live in China.
• Much time and money is spent on education, more on health services but the most is spent on national defence.
• Few rivers in Europe are not polluted.
• Fewer people die young now than in the seventeenth century.
• The country with the fewest people per square kilometre must be Australia.
• Scientists have little hope of finding a complete cure for cancer before the year 2020.
• She had less time to study than Paul but had better results.
• Give that dog the least opportunity and it will bite you.

SOME vs ANY რამე - რაიმე

Some and any can be used with countable and uncountable nouns to describe an undefined or incomplete quantity.

USING "SOME"

Some can be used in descriptive sentences.

EXAMPLES

• I had some rice for lunch.
• He got some books from the library.
• I will have some news next week.
• Philip wants some help with his exams.
• There is some butter in the fridge.

Some is also used in interrogative sentences when you think you already know the answer.

EXAMPLES

• Did he give you some tea? = I think he did.
• Is there some fruit juice in the fridge? = I think there is.
• Would you like some help? = Probably you do.
• Will you have some roast beef? = Probably you will

Some can also be used in interrogative sentences to ask for something or to offer something.

EXAMPLES

• Could I have some books, please?
• Why don't you take some apples home with you?
• Would you like some tea?
• Will you have some cake?

USING "ANY"

Anyis used in interrogative sentences when you do not know the answer.

EXAMPLES

• Do you have any friends in London?
• Do they have any children?
• Do you want any groceries from the shop?
• Are there any problems with your work?

Any is also used with not to form negative sentences. In these sentences, the word any emphasizes the negativity to make it more absolute.

EXAMPLES

• She doesn't want any kitchen appliances for Christmas.
• They don't need any help moving to their new house.
• I don't want any cake.
• There isn't any reason to complain.

A little - პოზიტიური little - ნეგატიური, A few & few

The quantifiers few and a few, and little and a little seem nearly identical but they are actually quite distinct. These expressions show the speaker's attitude towards the quantity he is referring to as either positive or negative.

POSITIVE ATTITUDE

A few (for countable nouns) and a little (for uncountable nouns) describe the quantity in a positive way, implying that although the speaker may not have much, he has enough.

EXAMPLES

• I've got a few friends. = I have enough friends.
• I have a few flowers in my garden. = I have enough flowers.
• I've got a little money. = I have enough money.
• I have a little free time on Thursdays. = I have enough free time.

NEGATIVE ATTITUDE

Few (for countable nouns) and little (for uncountable nouns) describe the quantity in a negative way. They may actually indicate a total lack of the noun, but are more polite than saying so directly.

EXAMPLES

• Few people visited him in hospital. = he had almost no visitors, or perhaps no visitors at all.
• I've seen few birds around here. = there are almost no birds, or perhaps not a single bird
• He had little money for treats. = almost no money, or perhaps no money at all
• I have little time for TV = almost no time, or perhaps no time at all

Pick the right quantifier MUCH vs MANY

To answer the questions How much? and How many? certain quantifiers can be used with countable nouns (friends, cups, people), others with uncountable nouns (sugar, tea, money) and still others will all types of nouns.

Only with uncountable nouns	With all types of nouns	Only with countable nouns
a little	no, none, not any	a few
a bit of	some	a number of
	any	several
a great deal of	a lot of, lots of	a great number of
a large amount of	plenty of	a large number of

EXAMPLES

• Would you like some tea and a few cookies?
• I always put a little milk and some carrots in my soup.
• He has several apples. I don't have any fruit at all.
• She has plenty of clothes for the winter.
• I recieved a large amount of feedback from my survey.

USING "MUCH" AND"MANY"

Much and many are mainly used in interrogative and negative sentences. They are also used in affirmative and negative sentences in combination with too and so. Notice: the word many can be used alone in affirmative sentences while the word much cannot. Much is replaced in affirmative sentences with a lot of or lots of (these expressions can also replace many).

Uncountable nouns	Countable nouns
How much sugar do you have?	How many people came to the concert?
There's not much sugar at the store.	Not many people came to the concert.
I have too much sugar at home.	There were too many people at the concert.
I don't know what to do with so much sugar.	It's a problem when there are so many people.
I wish there was not so much sugar here.	There were not so many people last year.
There is a lot of sugar in candy.	There are many people who want to come. = There are a lot of people who want to come.

Numbers - cardinal: one , two, three . ordinal: first second third

READING DECIMALS

Read decimals aloud in English by pronouncing the decimal point as "point", then read each digit individually. Money is not read this way.

Written	Said
0.5	point five
0.25	point two five
0.73	point seven three
0.05	point zero five
0.6529	point six five two nine
2.95	two point nine five

READING FRACTIONS

Read fractions using the cardinal number for the numerator and the ordinal number for the denominator, making the ordinal number plural if the numerator is larger than 1. This applies to all numbers except for the number 2, which is read "half" when it is the denominator, and "halves" if there is more than one.

Written	Said
1/3	one third
3/4	three fourths
5/6	five sixths
1/2	one half
3/2	three halves

PRONOUNCING PERCENTAGES

Percentages are easy to read aloud in English. Just say the number and then add the word "percent".

Written	Pronounced
5%	five percent
25%	twenty-five percent
36.25%	thirty-six point two five percent
100%	one hundred percent
400%	four hundred percent

READING SUMS OF MONEY

To read a sum of money, first read the whole number, then add the currency name. If there is a decimal, follow with the decimal pronounced as a whole number, and if coinage has a name in the currency, add that word at the end. Note that normal decimals are not read in this way. These rules only apply to currency.

Written	Spoken
25$	twenty-five dollars
52€	fifty-two euros
140₤	one hundred and fourty pounds
$43.25	forty-three dollars and twenty-five cents (shortened to "forty-three twenty-five" in everyday speech)
€12.66	twelve euros sixty-six
₤10.50	ten pounds fifty

PRONOUNCING MEASUREMENTS

Just read out the number, followed by the unit of measurement, which will often be abbreviated in the written form.

Written	Spoken
60m	sixty meters
25km/h	twenty-five kilometers per hour
11ft	eleven feet
2L	two liters
3tbsp	three tablespoons
1tsp	one teaspoon

PRONOUNCING YEARS

Reading years in English is relatively complicated. In general, when the year is a four digit number, read the first two digits as a whole number, then the second two digits as another whole number. There are a few exceptions to this rule. Years that are within the first 100 years of a new millenium can be read as whole numbers even though they have four digits, or they can be read as two two-digit numbers. Millenia are always read as whole numbers because they would be difficult to pronounce otherwise. New centuries are read as whole numbers of hundreds. We do not use the word "thousand", at least not for reading years within the past 1000 years.

Years that have just three digits can be read as a three digit number, or as a one digit number followed by a two-digit number. Years that are a two digit number are read as a whole number. You can preceed any year by the words "the year" to make your meaning clear, and this is common for two and three digit years. Years before the year 0 are followed by BC, pronounced as two letters of the alphabet.

Interestingly, these rules apply to reading street addresses as well.

Written	Spoken
2014	twenty fourteen or two thousand fourteen
2008	two thousand eight
2000	two thousand
1944	nineteen fourty-four
1908	nineteen o eight
1900	nineteen hundred
1600	sixteen hundred
1256	twelve fifty-six
1006	ten o six
866	eight hundred sixty-six or eight sixty-six
25	twenty-five
3000 BC	three thousand BC
3250 BC	thirty two fifty BC

HOW TO SAY 0

There are several ways to pronounce the number 0, used in different contexts. Unfortunately, usage varies between different English-speaking countries. These pronunciations apply to American English.

Pronunciation	Usage
zero	Used to read the number by itself, in reading decimals, percentages, and phone numbers, and in some fixed expressions.
o (the letter name)	Used to read years, addresses, times and temperatures
nil	Used to report sports scores
nought	Not used in the USA

EXAMPLES

Written	Said
3.04+2.02=5.06	Three point zero four plus two point zero two makes five point zero six.
There is a 0% chance of rain.	There is a zero percent chance of rain.
The temperature is -20⁰C.	The temperature is twenty degrees below zero.
You can reach me at 0171 390 1062.	You can reach me at zero one seven one, three nine zero, one zero six two
I live at 4604 Smith Street.	I live at fourty-six o four Smith Street
He became king in 1409.	He became king in fourteen o nine.
I waited until 4:05.	I waited until four o five.
The score was 4-0.	The score was four nil.

TIMES X , MAKES = .